animal+report+facts

f Once the chick is fully developed it chips its way out of the egg using an "egg-tooth" on the end of its beak. Most penguin chicks take around a day to fully extract themselves from their eggs. Once they emerge from the eggs the chicks are at the mercy of the elements. They have very little protection from the cold or wet, so they rely on their parents for warmth and shelter as well as for food. || Penguins (and other seabirds) DO NOT have a crop!! In fact, not every bird species has one. Crops are mainly found in seed-eating birds. Penguins have an unusually long oesophagus because their stomach is located so low in their bodies, virtually between their knees. The stomach is a big muscular bag that has a glandular lining in the top part (equivalent to the proventriculus) and a folded, muscular part in the bottom. Occasionally penguins swallow little pebbles that might aid their digestion of fish, squid and crustaceans.
 * ||  || **growth** || **body functions** || **pregnancy/birth** || **habitat** || **adaptation** || **problems** ||   || **active** ||  **diet** ||
 * preditor/prey || family group || relatives ||
 * || Without trying to address the old chestnut "which came first, the penguin or the egg?", we can at least assert that all penguins today start out as eggs. The eggs are incubated, usually by both parents taking turns, for up to 8 weeks depending on the species - larger penguins lay larger eggs which take longer to incubate. The development of the embryo in the egg follows a similar path to that of any bird - you will find plenty of examples of the development of chicken eggs in biology textbooks, and for all practical purposes you can consider penguin eggs to follow the same stages (although the timescale of the development will differ).
 * || What a penguin eats, you can find under Biology - Food.

While a penguin has no teeth, the food goes directly to the stomach. Here it is stored either for regurgitation as food for the chicks or for digestion. The liver and pancreas produce the necessary elements to aid the digestion. The pancreatic juice delivers, among other functions, bicarbonates for the regulation of the acidity in the stomach and supplies enzymes for digestion. From here the almost digested food goes to the intestines, where all rest-material are extracted and this leaves the body through the cloaca.

Recent research by French scientists has shown that king penguins, for example, can adjust the PH (acidity) of their stomach to prevent rapid digestions. Another study, also by French scientists, showed that king penguins use bacteria in their stomachs that prevent the food from digestion! || Females lay a single egg onto their feet and transfer it immediately to the male who incubates it on his feet underneath a fold of abdominal skin, throughout the Antarctic winter. Temperatures can drop as low as -70°C but they stick with the task! ||  ||   || Erect-crested penguin population trends are decreasing, || size**: 11 2 cm (44 in.), 27 to 41 kg (60-90 lb.) size:** 94 cm (37 in.), 13.5 to 16 kg (30-35 lb.) The very small population currently estimated to be around 1,500 breeding pairs has been falling steadily over the last 30 years and has reached a stage where there is a real danger of extinction unless action is taken. The main threats are overfishing, reducing food stocks as well as human disturbance of nesting sites both from population pressure and tourism. In addition, in early 2001, a major oil spill was threatened, but largely due to favourable weather conditions, was averted. ||
 * || The average lifespan of penguins is probably 15 to 20 years. Some individuals live considerably longer || **Emperor penguin
 * distribution**: circumpolar on Antarctic continent within limits of pack-ice (Marchant, 1990); one of two species restricted to the Antarctic (the other is the Adelie); generally avoid open water beyond limits of floating ice (Marchant, 1990).
 * population**: 135,000 to 175,000 pairs
 * current status:** not globally threatened, stable with some local fluctuations || Penguins are among the most social of all birds. All species are colonial to some degree || Generally, penguins are not sexually dimorphic; males and females look alike. Crested penguins are exceptions: the males are more robust and have larger bills (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). || Penguins generally live on islands and remote continental regions that are free of land predators, where their inability to fly is not detrimental to their survival. ||  || Most prey of penguins inhabit the upper water layers, so most penguins generally do not have to dive to great depths or for long periods (Moller-Schwarze, 1984). ||
 * Swimming speeds generally are not well known (Kooyman, 1975). Earlier estimates of swimming speeds were taken from observations of penguins swimming alongside moving ships, a method that proved to be unreliable (Croxall and Davis, 1990). The fastest swimmers belong to the genus //Aptenodytes//. Emperors have been observed swimming 14.4 kph (8.9 mph), though they normally do not exceed 10.8 kph (6.7 mph). Both kings and chinstraps have been recorded at 8.6 kph (5.3 mph), Adélies at 7.9 kph (4.9 mph), and fairy penguins at 2.5 kph (1.6 mph) (del Hoyo, et al., 19921- Marchant, 1990). || Chicks once hatched are looked after by both parents. To begin with one parent stays with the chick while the other forages for food. The chicks are typically fed once every day (although in some larger species the interval between parents changing duties and feeding the chicks may be longer - see the detailed [|species notes sections] for individual species behaviour). To begin with the chicks either sit on their parents feet (emperors and kings) or under their bellies, to keep warm and dry. ||
 * **King penguin
 * distribution:** subantarctic islands and peninsulas (Marchant, 1990); usually forage in ice-free waters (Marchant, 1990); mainly over shelf and slope areas (Stahl, et al., 1990). Most juveniles oceanic; observed several hundred kilometers from nearest colony (Ainley, et al., 1984).
 * population:** more than 1 million pairs
 * Current status:** not globally threatened; stable or increasing ||  || During the breeding season, female penguins are sometimes identifiable by muddy footprints on their backs, left by males during mating activity. ||   ||   || The Galapagos penguins which are found only on the Galapagos Islands are listed as Endangered. Galapagos penguins are easily the most northerly of all penguins living right on the equator. With the development of the Galapagos Islands over the last few years there has been a reduction in the number of these small birds. How serious this reduction is remains to be seen.
 * ||  || African penguins eat mostly fish supplemented by a few percent of squid and the occasional crustaceans.

[|return to top of page] || size:** 46 to 61 cm (1 8-24 in.), 3.6 to 4.5 kg (8-1 0 lb.)
 * || As the chicks grow larger they grow a thick protective coat of downy feathers that allows them to keep warm and dry independently of their parents - this is important since soon they can't fit under their parents for shelter. ||
 * **Adelie penguin
 * **Adelie penguin
 * distribution:** circumpolar on Antarctic continent within limits of pack-ice (Marchant, 1990); is restricted to the Antarctic (along with emperor penguins).
 * population:** 4,169,390 breeding pairs (del Hoyo, et al., 1992)
 * current status:** not globally threatened; stable or increasing ||  || Incubation is the time spent warming the egg before it hatches. With the exception of emperor penguins, partners take turns incubating eggs, allowing each mate to leave to feed for several days at a time. || These highly specialized marine birds are adapted to living at sea. Some species spend as much as 75% of their lives at sea. They usually are found near nutrient-rich, cold-water currents that provide an abundant supply of food (Ainley, et al., 1983). ||   || Yellow-eyed penguins are found on the East Coast of South Island of New Zealand, mostly around the Otago Peninsula as well as on two remote sub-Antarctic Islands. Numbers on the mainland have declined steeply over the last few decades as more and more land has been used for agriculture, destroying the natural vegetation that provided nesting cover for these shy birds. Recent interest mainly generated by the [|The Yellow-eyed Penguin Trust] has alerted local residents and farmers and now several reserves have been set up and at least one farmer is taking positive steps to encourage the penguins back on his land. ||
 * ||  || Rockhoppers take a mixed diet based mainly (60 to 70%) on krill with various fish and squid making up the remainder.

[|return to top of page] || All the other crested penguins (except the Macaroni penguins which have a healthy and stable population) are listed as Vulnerable. Probably the species in the most immediate danger is the Fiordland penguin which is only found on the isolated West coast of South Island of New Zealand and on Stewart Island and is in danger for two reasons. First, man has introduced several animals (rats, stoats, cats, dogs, etc.) that attack penguins in their nests and take chicks and eggs. Secondly, as the human population grows, so people are starting to move in to the remote areas where these birds breed. At present, little is known about the population of these birds, or how it is changing as man encroaches on their living space. The major threat to all the other crested penguin species are from reduction in food stocks from overfishing or climate change. || In recent years there have been some significant population changes whose causes are not fully understood, but are widely believed to be due to the increase in commercial fishing off the South African coast. Ten years ago the largest populations were on Dassen and Dyer Islands off the Cape. However, the population on Dyer island has been falling rapidly over the last few years, so much so that some fear that it may soon become unviable. At the same time, the population on St Croix Island near Port Elizabeth has risen and this island is now home to the second largest colony of African penguins. A few other colonies have also been growing at the same time, notably those on Robben Island and the principal mainland colony at [|Boulders Beach]. Nevertheless, the growth in these colonies is still much less than the reductions reported on Dyer so that the population remains in overall decline. Since all the colonies are close to major shipping lanes the African penguin is extremely susceptible to the risk of oil spills. Indeed, in recent years there have been two major spills that have claimed many penguins, despite the excellent work of the volunteers at [| SANCCOB] to rescue and rehabilitate these birds. [|The "Treasure" oil spill] in 2000 was major cause for concern and led to what was probably the largest ever rescue, relocation and rehabilitation project. It had been hoped that the colonies around Port Elizabeth would be less at risk form oil spills; however, there are plans to build a major sea oil terminal on the coast very near St Croix (one of the largest colonies). In fact the new sea walls would come within a kilometre of this island. The potential for disaster is very great, if just one large ship were to run aground on the rocky shores the resulting oil spillages could decimate one of the largest remaining African penguin colonies. What can you do? You can support SANCCOB, the organisation that rescues oiled birds and campaigns for better conservation measures. SANCCOB is a purely voluntary organisation that is permanently starved of funds. Contact SANCCOB at PO Box 11-116, 7443 Bloubergrant, South Africa. || In some species where the adults habitually return to land every night, juveniles will usually come ashore most nights. In other species where the adults only come ashore in the breeding season, the juveniles tend not to return to the colonies until they are ready to breed themselves. Where juveniles do come back to the colonies on a regular basis, they are very often disruptive and may be chased away by adult birds. After one year the juveniles moult again and now start to look very much more like their parents. In the crested penguins the crests may take three or more years to develop fully, and in the Kings and Emperors, the colouration deepens over the first few years. At two years old the juveniles usually return to the colony where they were born and start to think about breeding themselves. However, it will generally take one or two seasons for them to find a mate and manage to incubate an egg successfully. || The other threat is global warming, all penguins live in and around the fertile cold seas. As the Earth heats up so penguins will need to move to breeding grounds further south. Clearly they have achieved this in past ice ages. However, the problem this time is that the changes seem to be occurring very quickly, so that the penguins may not be able to adapt to new sites quickly enough to avoid disaster. || Once a pair have formed they will generally perform regular rituals to strengthen the bond between themselves and to ensure that later, when one will go out to sea while the other incubates the nest, they will be able to recognise one another easily. These rituals come in many forms: there are ritual displays and calling, males will often present their female partners with stones or other nesting material, pairs will often preen each other taking care of the feathers that individual birds can find it very hard to reach, etc. As soon as the bond between is well established they will mate to fertilise the eggs. In each species there is a careful sequence of displays between the male and female to help co-ordinate a successful mating. The sequences of pictures below illustrates the stages in the mating of a pair of African Penguins. || 1300 tons of fuel oil leaked from the ship - the slick drifted initially to Robben Island and then later back toward Dassen Island. With the major breeding colonies on Robben and Dassen islands surrounded by oil from the sunken ore carrier 'Treasure', over 50,000 adults and 20,000 chicks were threatened with certain death from starvation or exposure which inevitably follows oiling – unless the birds were cleaned and rehabilitated. 'An estimated 44% of the world population of African penguins were affected,' according to Dr Rob Crawford of the South African Department of Marine and Coastal Management. || Female penguins can be quite devious. In several species (certainly Adelies and Yellow-eyed penguins have been seen behaving in this way) some females select their partners for their reliability in raising chicks, but will mate surreptitiously with other bolder and less caring males on their way to and from the sea. Thus they try to ensure the best chance of survival for their chicks by having a caring "father" to raise them, but at the same time giving them genes from a more aggressive and, by implication, successful male. We don't know how long penguins live in the wild, there simply haven't been enough long term population studies as yet. The best information available is that penguins tend to live for about 20 years. || Some penguins return to their home colonies to moult while others will take up residence somewhere quite different. One example is this King penguin who returns every year to Campbell Island for his moult.
 * || The smaller penguin species of the Antarctic and the subantarctic primarily feed on krill and squids. Species found farther north tend to eat fishes. ||  ||   ||   ||
 * || However, the chicks are still vulnerable to predators such as skuas, kelp gulls, etc. so they remain close to the parent on the nest site (the "guard stage"). As the chicks grow so does their appetite and the demand for food increases quickly making it difficult for just one of the parents to obtain enough food. Eventually, the chicks are large enough that both parents can go to sea to gather food for their chick at the same time. In most species the chicks gather together in "creches" to provide protection both from predators and from the elements. In some species, such as Kings, these creches can be very large with many hundreds of chicks tightly packed together, in other species such as Africans, the creches are smaller (with up to 10 or so chicks coming together) and very much less dense. ||
 * ||  || King penguins have a unique breeding cycle. It takes 14 to 16 months to complete egg laying and chick rearing. So most pairs raise chicks at most twice in a three year period. The breeding cycle starts with adults coming ashore to moult and then returning to sea for 20 days to regain body reserves. The females lay a single egg which is incubated on the parents feet, both parents take turns to incubate the egg during the 54 day incubation period. The chicks remain with the parents for 30 to 40 days until they are large enough to join creches, at which time both parents go to sea to fetch food for the growing chicks. The chicks finally moult into their sub-adult plumage and go to sea at the age of 10 to 13 months. || . They generally raise a small brood, and the parents cooperate in caring for the clutch and for the young. During the cold season on the other hand the mates separate for several months to protect the egg. Usually, the male stays with the egg and keeps it warm, and the female goes out to sea and finds food so that when it comes home, the baby will have food to eat. Once the female comes back, they switch roles. Not all mating pairs of penguins are male and female.[|[4]][|[5]] When mothers lose a [|chick], they sometimes attempt to "steal" another mother's chick, usually unsuccessfully as other females in the vicinity assist the defending mother in keeping her chick. As the young grow, they assemble in large groups called [|crèches] in some species, such as [|Emperor Penguins]. ||   || . Penguin species are found on every continent in the Southern Hemisphere. They are abundant on many temperate and subantarctic islands. Different species thrive in varying climates, ranging from Galapagos penguins on tropical islands at the equator to emperor penguins restricted to the pack ice of Antarctica (Sparks and Soper, 1987). ||   ||   || The diet of Snares penguins is not well known. It is believed the diet consists of 63% krill, 19% squid and 18% fish. ||   || Adélies feed primarily on small krill, while chinstraps forage for large krill. ||   ||   ||   ||
 * || As the chicks grow more or less to the same size as their parents, so they begin their first moult into their juvenile plumage and take their first trips out to sea. ||
 * ||  || . They generally raise a small brood, and the parents cooperate in caring for the clutch and for the young. During the cold season on the other hand the mates separate for several months to protect the egg. Usually, the male stays with the egg and keeps it warm, and the female goes out to sea and finds food so that when it comes home, the baby will have food to eat. Once the female comes back, they switch roles. Not all mating pairs of penguins are male and female.[|[4]][|[5]] When mothers lose a [|chick], they sometimes attempt to "steal" another mother's chick, usually unsuccessfully as other females in the vicinity assist the defending mother in keeping her chick. As the young grow, they assemble in large groups called [|crèches] in some species, such as [|Emperor Penguins]. ||   ||   || Of the crested penguins only the Erect-crested is listed as Endangered. The Erect-crested penguins are limited to only two main breeding locations (Bounty and Antipodes Islands). Populations at both locations are reported to be falling. The main reason seems to be a lack of suitable food - probably due to natural changes in prey species migration, etc. However, the influence of possible over-fishing and global warming cannot be ruled out.
 * ||  || Emperors and kings primarily eat fishes and squids. ||   ||   ||   ||
 * || In most species it takes from 6 to 12 weeks to raise a chick to the juvenile stage. However, Kings with their large chicks, take much longer (up to 13 months!) see the [|King penguin page] for more details. The Emperors manage to raise their large chicks more quickly, using a different strategy; the Emperor chicks moult into juvenile plumage while still much smaller than their parents. The juveniles then continue to grow out at sea. ||
 * ||  || Some penguin species spend as much as 75% of their lives in the sea. Some species spend several months at a time at sea, only coming ashore for breeding and molting (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). The Fiordland crested penguins sometimes grow barnacles on their tails, an indication that they are at sea for long periods (Muller-Schwarze, 1984). || Penguins generally do not migrate great distances. They tend to disperse from breeding rookeries to feed in nearby coastal waters (Sparks and Soper, 1987). ||   || Of the species listed as vulnerable, the species most at risk is probably the African penguin. The population of African penguins has declined steeply this century and is still in decline. There are many different causes. Earlier in the century, guano was collected from the main breeding islands; removing the guano led to a dramatic reduction in potential nesting sites as the birds liked to make burrows in the thick covering of guano. Egg collection also contributed to the large scale reduction of the population from several million at the turn of the century to somewhere around 50,000 pairs today.
 * ||  || Penguins eat krill (a shrimplike crustacean in the family Euphausiidae), squids, and fishes. ||   ||   ||   ||
 * || As soon as chicks have moulted into their juvenile plumage and lost all trace of the downy coat they had as a chick they head out to sea to fend for themselves. This is a difficult time. The juveniles must quickly learn where to find and how to catch their own food as well as how to avoid the predators in the water. This is one of the most dangerous times for penguins, in practice many juvenile penguins die during their first few months of independence. In most species less than half the juveniles that go out to sea each year survive into adulthood.
 * ||  || A female emperor penguin transfers a single egg to the top of her mate's feet. The female goes to sea to feed while the male incubates the egg alone. She returns several weeks later, usually just before the egg is ready to hatch, to relieve her mate so that he may feed. The male fasts throughout the courtship, nesting, and incubation periods. He will live off reserves of body fat which may be 3 to 4 cm (1.2-1.6 in.) thick, losing up to 45% of his body weight (Marchant || Young birds usually disperse when they leave their colonies, and may wander thousands of kilometers (Marchant, 1990). They generally return to the colonies where they were hatched to molt and breed (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). ||   || Most of the Antarctic penguin species are relatively safe. There are two obvious potential threats. First, there are some moves to commercial harvesting of Krill in the Southern Ocean. Krill is the mainstay of the Antarctic food chain, some penguins feed directly on Krill, while others feed on the fish and larger crustaceans that themselves rely on Krill. At present very little is known about overall Krill stocks or how much it may be safe to harvest. However, if commercial Krill fisheries take off there is a real danger that this food source may be removed by over-fishing.
 * ||  || Various species of penguins have slightly different food preferences, which reduces competition among species. ||   ||   ||   ||
 * || Adult penguins breed every year (except the Kings who can usually only raise at most two chicks every three years). In most species the males return first to the nest sites in the colony and try to attract a female. Females look for strong healthy males who will be able to help with the exhausting process of chick rearing. The degree of pair fidelity between seasons is greatest in the penguins with the shortest breeding seasons (ie the Antarctic penguins: Emperors, Adelies, etc.) and lowest amongst those where there is an extended breeding season (i.e. the warm weather penguins; Humboldts, Africans, etc.). There is a clear advantage in continuing with a previously successful partnership especially when precious time can be saved by avoiding the lengthy rituals of finding a new partner.
 * ||  || . The incubation period varies with species. It may be as short as one month, as in the erect-crested penguins, or as long as 62 to 66 days for the emperors || . Population data usually are gathered during the breeding season. Some researchers count chicks to estimate the total population, others count breeding pairs. The [|Appendix] lists population estimates by species. ||   || The iron-ore ship, the Treasure, sank early on Friday 23 June 2000 in Table Bay about 30km from Cape Town, 8 km northwest of Melkbostrand. It sank approximately 20 km north of the African Penguin colony on Robben Island, and about 40 km south of the colony on Dassen Island.
 * ||  || Emperors take various antarctic fish as well as crustaceans such as krill etc. ||   ||   ||   ||
 * || Depending on the species the eggs can be laid from one to three weeks after mating.
 * ||  || . The greatest single cause for reproductive failure in some species is the mistiming between parents of nest relief during incubation. This usually occurs when the female fails to return from a foraging trip before the male deserts the nest (Ainley, et al., 1983). A male will spontaneously leave the nest and eggs when the motivation to feed overcomes that for incubating the eggs || Chinstrap penguins may be the most numerous, with a population estimated at 6.5 million breeding pairs (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). ||   ||   ||   ||   || King penguins diet consists almost entirely of fish with only a very few squid and crustaceans being eaten. ||   ||   ||   ||
 * || All penguins need to replace their feathers each year. Adults generally do this after the breeding season. Once their chicks have moulted into their own juvenile plumage the adults return to sea for a few days to build up their own fat reserves and then come back ashore to moult. The moult takes about three weeks and the birds can only stand around and fast. This must be a particularly miserable time for penguins. Because they are moulting they lose their waterproof coats and cannot enter the sea so they have to face the elements and starve until their smart new set of feathers is ready.

This bird (the only King penguin on the Island) is an adult and probably breeds on Macquarie Island about 1,000 miles away. But he prefers the solitude and beauty of Campbell for his annual enforced moult. Once penguins achieve their adult plumage, they do not change the pattern of it in any way during the moults. The pictures below of African Penguins were taken in successive seasons on Boulders Beach, so the birds must have moulted in between. Nevertheless, we were easily able to recognise the birds from the patterns of spots that had not changed in the slightest in the moults. ||
 * ||  || Chicks first "pip" by poking a small hole in the egg. They then chip at the shell until they can push off the top. Chicks may take up to three days to chip their way out ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   || Adelies live almost exclusively on krill - which makes up over 99% of their diet. ||   ||   ||   ||
 * || Moulting is extremely important to penguins as they need to maintain their feathers in tip top condition at all times. The feathers come in two layers and serve two purposes. The bottom layer of downy feathers provides thermal insulation by trapping a layer of air close to the skin and helps keep the birds warm in the cold waters where they fish and for the Antarctic species in the cold air where they breed. The top layer of interlocking waterproof feathers keeps the cold water away from their skin and acts like a dry diving suit so that they can easily survive in the very cold Antarctic and sub-Antarctic waters. ||  ||   || A fine down covers most newly hatched chicks. (King penguin chicks hatch naked and grow down within a few weeks.) ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   || Chinstraps rely mostly on krill, but supplement their diet with about 5% fish ||   ||   ||   ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || In all species, the coloration and markings of chicks separate them from adults. Scientists believe that adult penguins do not perceive the young birds as competitors for mates or nesting sites. The chicks'coloration may elicit parental behavior from the adults instead ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   || Gentoos live mainly on crustaceans such as krill with fish making up only about 15% of the diet. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || The striking markings of emperor chicks may help to make the chicks more visible against the ice and snow; significant because emperors don't have individual nest sites where the young can be found ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   || Yellow-eyed penguins take mainly (85%) fish supplemented with some squid. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Chicks require attentive parents for survival. Both parents feed the chick regurgitated food. Adults recognize and feed only their own chicks. Parents are able to identify their young by their chick's distinctive call. ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   || Macaroni penguins live almost entirely on krill supplemented with up to 5% of squid. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Male emperor penguins exhibit a feature unique among penguins. If the chick hatches before the female returns, the male, despite his fasting, is able to produce and secrete a curdlike substance from his esophagus to feed the chick allowing for survival and growth for up to two weeks ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   || Royals have a varied diet - about 50% krill and about 48% fish with 2% squid. ||   ||   ||   ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Parents brood chicks (keep them warm) by covering them with their brood patch. ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   || Little is known about the diet of Fiordland penguins. The only study (of adults feeding chicks) suggests a diet of 85% squid with the remainder made up of crustaceans and fish. ||   ||   ||   ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || In some species, partially grown chicks gather in groups called creches. ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   || There have been no studies of the diet of Erect-crested penguins. There is one report that suggests they eat mainly krill and squid. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || A chick depends on its parents for survival between hatching and the growth of its waterproof feathers. This period may range from seven weeks for Adélie chicks, to 13 months for king chicks. Once a chick has fledged (replaced its juvenile down with waterproof feathers), it is able to enter the water and becomes independent of its parents ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   || Magellanic penguins eat a mixture of squid and small schooling fish. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Some penguins mate for life, others for just one season. ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   || Galapagos penguins are believed to eat mostly fish such as mullet and sardine, but no detailed studies have been published. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Adelies build rough nests of stones. Two eggs are laid, these are incubated for 32 to 34 days by the parents taking turns (shifts typically last for 12 days). The chicks remain in the nest for 22 days before joining creches. The chicks moult into their juvenile plumage and go out to sea after 50 to 60 days. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   ||   || Humboldt penguins eat mostly small fish such as anchovy and sardine. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Chinstrap penguins build roughly circular nests of stones; the nests are typically 40 cm in diameter and up to 15 cm high in the centre. Two eggs are usually laid and are incubated by both parents in turn in shifts of 5 to 10 days. The eggs hatch after 33 to 35 days and the chicks stay in the nests for 20 to 30 days before joining creches. The chicks moult and go to sea at 50 to 60 days of age. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   ||   || Little penguins eat mainly fish and squid. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Nests are usually made from a roughly circular pile of stones and can be quite large, 20 cm high and 25 cm in diameter. Two eggs are laid both weighing around 130 g. The parents share incubation, changing duty daily. The eggs hatch after 34 to 36 days. The chicks remain in the nests for about 30 days before forming creches. The chicks moult into sub-adult plumage and go out to sea at about 80 to 100 days. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Nests are made in dense undergrowth. Two eggs are laid and often both chicks are reared. Incubation takes 39 to 51 days with both parents sharing duties in shifts of 1 to 2 days. Chicks are guarded by a parent while the other is at sea collecting food for 40 days. Creches are rarely formed and chicks stay close to the nest when both parents are away. Chicks moult and go to sea when 106 days old. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Macaroni penguin nests are rudimentary scrapes in mud or gravel among rocks. Two eggs are laid with only one chick usually being reared. Incubation is shared by both parents in long shifts. Eggs hatch after 33 to 37 days. The male broods and guards the chicks for 23 to 25 days while the female brings food daily. Chicks then form small creches and are fed every 1 or 2 days until they are ready to leave to go to sea at about 60 to 70 days old.
 * ||  ||   ||   ||   || Humboldt penguins eat mostly small fish such as anchovy and sardine. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Chinstrap penguins build roughly circular nests of stones; the nests are typically 40 cm in diameter and up to 15 cm high in the centre. Two eggs are usually laid and are incubated by both parents in turn in shifts of 5 to 10 days. The eggs hatch after 33 to 35 days and the chicks stay in the nests for 20 to 30 days before joining creches. The chicks moult and go to sea at 50 to 60 days of age. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   ||   || Little penguins eat mainly fish and squid. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Nests are usually made from a roughly circular pile of stones and can be quite large, 20 cm high and 25 cm in diameter. Two eggs are laid both weighing around 130 g. The parents share incubation, changing duty daily. The eggs hatch after 34 to 36 days. The chicks remain in the nests for about 30 days before forming creches. The chicks moult into sub-adult plumage and go out to sea at about 80 to 100 days. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Nests are made in dense undergrowth. Two eggs are laid and often both chicks are reared. Incubation takes 39 to 51 days with both parents sharing duties in shifts of 1 to 2 days. Chicks are guarded by a parent while the other is at sea collecting food for 40 days. Creches are rarely formed and chicks stay close to the nest when both parents are away. Chicks moult and go to sea when 106 days old. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Macaroni penguin nests are rudimentary scrapes in mud or gravel among rocks. Two eggs are laid with only one chick usually being reared. Incubation is shared by both parents in long shifts. Eggs hatch after 33 to 37 days. The male broods and guards the chicks for 23 to 25 days while the female brings food daily. Chicks then form small creches and are fed every 1 or 2 days until they are ready to leave to go to sea at about 60 to 70 days old.
 * ||  ||   ||   || Nests are made in dense undergrowth. Two eggs are laid and often both chicks are reared. Incubation takes 39 to 51 days with both parents sharing duties in shifts of 1 to 2 days. Chicks are guarded by a parent while the other is at sea collecting food for 40 days. Creches are rarely formed and chicks stay close to the nest when both parents are away. Chicks moult and go to sea when 106 days old. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Macaroni penguin nests are rudimentary scrapes in mud or gravel among rocks. Two eggs are laid with only one chick usually being reared. Incubation is shared by both parents in long shifts. Eggs hatch after 33 to 37 days. The male broods and guards the chicks for 23 to 25 days while the female brings food daily. Chicks then form small creches and are fed every 1 or 2 days until they are ready to leave to go to sea at about 60 to 70 days old.
 * ||  ||   ||   || Macaroni penguin nests are rudimentary scrapes in mud or gravel among rocks. Two eggs are laid with only one chick usually being reared. Incubation is shared by both parents in long shifts. Eggs hatch after 33 to 37 days. The male broods and guards the chicks for 23 to 25 days while the female brings food daily. Chicks then form small creches and are fed every 1 or 2 days until they are ready to leave to go to sea at about 60 to 70 days old.
 * ||  ||   ||   || Macaroni penguin nests are rudimentary scrapes in mud or gravel among rocks. Two eggs are laid with only one chick usually being reared. Incubation is shared by both parents in long shifts. Eggs hatch after 33 to 37 days. The male broods and guards the chicks for 23 to 25 days while the female brings food daily. Chicks then form small creches and are fed every 1 or 2 days until they are ready to leave to go to sea at about 60 to 70 days old.

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 * ||  ||   ||   || Nests are shallow depressions in sand or grass lined with stones or grass. Two eggs are usually laid but only one chick reared. Incubation takes 35 days and is shared by both parents in long shifts (up to 12 days). The male broods and guards the chicks for 10 to 20 days while the female brings food daily. Chicks then form small creches and are fed every 2 or 3 days until they are ready to leave to go to sea at about 65 days old.

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 * ||  ||   ||   || Fiordland penguins are solitary, they make nests in soft ground in dense undergrowth, well apart from one another. Nests can be a long distance from the shore and 100m above sea level. Two eggs are laid but usually only one chick is raised. The egg is incubated for 30 to 36 days with the parents taking turns on the nest (in long 5 to 12 day shifts). After hatching the male stays with the chick for 2 to 3 weeks while the female provides food. Chicks are then left either alone or in loose creches while both parents bring food daily. Chicks moult and go to sea when about 75 days old.

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 * ||  ||   ||   || Nests are simple depressions in the ground lined with some vegetation where available. Two eggs are laid but usually only one chick is raised. Little is known about the breeding of Erect-crested penguins. They probably follow a similar pattern to other crested penguins. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Snares penguins make a shallow scrape lined with twigs and branches. Two eggs are laid but only one chick is usually raised. Incubation takes 31 to 37 days by both parents in several long shifts. The male broods and guards the chick for 3 weeks. Chicks then form small creches and are fed daily by both parents. Chicks moult and go to sea when about 75 days old. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Nests are usually small scrapes lined with vegetation. Two eggs are usually laid but normally only one chick is reared (from the second egg). Adults share duties during the 32 to 34 day incubation period in long shifts of typically 10 days. The male broods and guards the chicks for 24 to 26 days after hatching with the female bringing home the food for the chick. Chicks then form into creches with both parents bringing food. The chicks moult and leave for the sea at the age of 65 to 75 days. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Two eggs are laid and in good years both chicks are reared. Incubation takes 38 to 41 days shared equally between both parents in shifts of 1 to 3 days. Chicks are brooded and guarded for 40 days after hatching with feeding and guard duties shared between the parents. Chicks moult and go to sea when 70 to 100 days old. ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Nests are built well apart usually under bushes or in burrows. Two eggs are laid and in good years both chicks are reared. Incubation takes 39 to 42 days shared equally between both parents in long shifts of 10 to 15 days. Chicks are brooded and guarded for 29 days after hatching with feeding and guard duties shared between the parents with the chicks being fed every 2 to 3 days. Chicks moult and go to sea when 60 to 70 days old.
 * ||  ||   ||   || Two eggs are laid and in good years both chicks are reared. Incubation takes 38 to 41 days shared equally between both parents in shifts of 1 to 3 days. Chicks are brooded and guarded for 40 days after hatching with feeding and guard duties shared between the parents. Chicks moult and go to sea when 70 to 100 days old. ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   ||   ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Nests are built well apart usually under bushes or in burrows. Two eggs are laid and in good years both chicks are reared. Incubation takes 39 to 42 days shared equally between both parents in long shifts of 10 to 15 days. Chicks are brooded and guarded for 29 days after hatching with feeding and guard duties shared between the parents with the chicks being fed every 2 to 3 days. Chicks moult and go to sea when 60 to 70 days old.
 * ||  ||   ||   || Nests are built well apart usually under bushes or in burrows. Two eggs are laid and in good years both chicks are reared. Incubation takes 39 to 42 days shared equally between both parents in long shifts of 10 to 15 days. Chicks are brooded and guarded for 29 days after hatching with feeding and guard duties shared between the parents with the chicks being fed every 2 to 3 days. Chicks moult and go to sea when 60 to 70 days old.
 * ||  ||   ||   || Nests are rudimentary burrows. Two eggs are usually laid but only one chick reared. Incubation takes 38 to 40 days shared equally between both parents. Chicks are brooded and guarded for 30 days after hatching with feeding and guard duties shared between the parents. Chicks moult and go to sea when 60 to 65 days old. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Nests are well excavated burrows. Two eggs are usually laid and occasionally in good years both chicks are reared. The life cycle of Humboldt penguins has not been well studied. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Little penguins dig out long (0.5 m) burrows to use as nests. Two eggs are normally laid and often two chicks are raised. Incubation takes 33 to 39 days with both parents sharing in shifts of 1 to 3 days. Chicks are guarded by one parent while the other is collecting food for up to 30 days. Creches are unusual. The chicks moult and go to sea when 50 to 65 days old. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Little penguins dig out long (0.5 m) burrows to use as nests. Two eggs are normally laid and often two chicks are raised. Incubation takes 33 to 39 days with both parents sharing in shifts of 1 to 3 days. Chicks are guarded by one parent while the other is collecting food for up to 30 days. Creches are unusual. The chicks moult and go to sea when 50 to 65 days old. ||
 * ||  ||   ||   || Little penguins dig out long (0.5 m) burrows to use as nests. Two eggs are normally laid and often two chicks are raised. Incubation takes 33 to 39 days with both parents sharing in shifts of 1 to 3 days. Chicks are guarded by one parent while the other is collecting food for up to 30 days. Creches are unusual. The chicks moult and go to sea when 50 to 65 days old. ||